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type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022\/\/d282kpwvnogo5m.cloudfront.net\/sites\/default\/files\/advagg_css\/css__ce2QY63WIanKyr8eSq7eavr1XQRRmFD6ZSmwpyJi8lM__zXwFqpqmxrZOXXcd_TpBQpjuELbmIP9wBR5UuTDWAO4__YJWWMMdfCJuAFm5cUEp88OsodhO3ZA-2lzRfoBsSlk4.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\u0027stylesheet\u0027 type=\u0027text\/css\u0027 href=\u0027\/sites\/all\/modules\/contrib\/panels\/plugins\/layouts\/onecol\/onecol.css\u0027 \/\u003E\u003C\/head\u003E\u003Cbody\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panels-ajax-tab-panel panels-ajax-tab-panel-sageoa-tab-art\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-display panel-1col clearfix\u0022 \u003E\n  \u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-panel panel-col\u0022\u003E\n    \u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-pane pane-highwire-markup\u0022 \u003E\n  \n      \n  \n  \u003Cdiv class=\u0022pane-content\u0022\u003E\n    \u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 id=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022article fulltext-view \u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section abstract\u0022 id=\u0022abstract-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003ESummary\u003C\/h2\u003E\n            \u003Cp id=\u0022p-1\u0022\u003EDigestive system disorders in reptiles are a diagnostic challenge because of the variations in gastrointestinal (GI) anatomy and physiology among species of reptiles. This article presents an update on the latest advances in diagnostic techniques and therapy that have provided practicing veterinarians with tools for improved diagnosis and treatment of GI disorders in reptiles commonly maintained as companion animals.\u003C\/p\u003E\n         \u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022kwd-group\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EVeterinary Radiology\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EGastrointestinal Diseases\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EExotic Animals\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EInfectious Diseases\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003ECompanion Animals\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EVeterinary Medicine\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022kwd-group clinical-trial\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EVeterinary Radiology\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EGastrointestinal Diseases\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EExotic Animals\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EInfectious Diseases\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003ECompanion Animals\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-2\u0022\u003EDigestive system disorders in reptiles are a diagnostic challenge because of the variations in gastrointestinal (GI) anatomy and physiology among species of reptiles. Christoph Mans, DVM, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, presented an update on the latest advances in diagnostic techniques and therapy that have provided practicing veterinarians with tools for improved diagnosis and treatment of GI disorders in reptiles commonly maintained as companion animals.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-3\u0022\u003EDiagnosis is based on evaluation of the animal\u0027s history and clinical signs, tests for parasites, and imaging studies. Environmental temperature should be considered a factor in digestive problems because of its effects on enzyme secretion, peristalsis, and intestinal absorption. Generally, digestion cannot take place at temperatures \u0026lt; 45\u00b0F (7\u00b0C) and is slow between 45\u00b0F and 60\u00b0F (7\u00b0 to 15\u00b0C). Other factors to look for are anorexia and weight loss, regurgitation in snakes, vomiting in lizards, diarrhea, constipation, cloacal tissue prolapse, and abdominal or coelomic distention.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-4\u0022\u003EIf a parasite is suspected, a fecal sample or cloacal wash may be microscopically examined on a direct wet mount or stained smear. \u003Cem\u003ECryptosporidium\u003C\/em\u003E and \u003Cem\u003EEntamoeba invadens\u003C\/em\u003E can be diagnosed with polymerase chain reaction. Pseudoparasites, or \u201cpass-through\u201d parasites, may be accidentally ingested with prey or soil that are not infectious to reptiles. Pollen, spores, or food mites might also be mistaken for a parasite.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-5\u0022\u003ERadiography is useful for evaluating tympany, foreign bodies, and constipation. However, plain x-ray films provide insufficient information about the liver or obstructions and filling defects. Contrast radiography is more effective for visualizing the upper GI, organ size, GI obstructions, and filling defects. Results can be affected by temperature, the disease process, and the type and volume of contrast media. Barium sulfate is an excellent contrast medium and should be used at 5 to 25 mL\/kg. Diatrizoic acid is faster and less radiopaque; the usual dose is 5 to 7 mL\/kg.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-6\u0022\u003EUltrasound is used to assess scales, scutes, and shells, as well as GI obstruction and ileus. Hyperechoic fat bodies in snakes and lizards can be identified with ultrasound. Computed tomography (CT) is superior to radiography and ultrasonography. CT with or without iodinated contrast media is useful for evaluating the GI, respiratory, urogenital, and skeletal systems. It is faster than contrast radiography for detecting impactions and obstructions. The liver can be evaluated for hepatic lipidosis and other disorders.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-7\u0022\u003EPeriodontal disease can be a cause of digestive and eating disorders. Etiologies include inappropriate diet, age, plaque formation, gingival recession, and osteomyelitis. Diarrhea in herbivorous reptiles may be due to inappropriate diet, such as too little fiber or too much sugar. Endoparasites, including pinworms, coccidia, flagellates, and \u003Cem\u003EStrongyloides\u003C\/em\u003E, are also a cause of diarrhea. Other GI conditions seen in reptiles include tympany, constipation, foreign bodies, and liver disorders. Vomiting is a common ailment in reptiles and is associated with a poor prognosis in lizards. Gastric ulceration with possible perforation has been observed in green iguanas. Neuroendocrine carcinomas can affect bearded dragons and are highly malignant. The etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of digestive disorders in reptiles are described in \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-table-wrap-1-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-table\u0022 href=\u0022#T1\u0022\u003ETable 1\u003C\/a\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022T1\u0022 class=\u0022table pos-float\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022callout\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EView this table:\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022callout-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u00220 first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/\u0022 class=\u0022table-expand-inline\u0022 data-table-url=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/15019\/expansion?postprocessors=highwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0026amp;table-expand-inline=1\u0022 html=\u00221\u0022 fragment=\u0022#\u0022 external=\u00221\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView inline\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u00221\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/15019\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u00222 last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/15019\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ETable 1.\u003C\/span\u003E \n            \u003Cp id=\u0022p-8\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003EDigestive Disorders in Reptiles\u003C\/p\u003E\n         \u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022copyright-statement\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn\u0022 id=\u0022copyright-statement-1\u0022\u003E\u00a9 2014 MD Conference Express\u00ae\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan id=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/mdc.sagepub.com\/content\/14\/25\/11.abstract\u0022 class=\u0022hw-link hw-link-article-abstract\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView Summary\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n  \n  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022http:\/\/mdc.sagepub.com\/sites\/all\/modules\/highwire\/highwire\/plugins\/highwire_markup_process\/js\/highwire_openurl.js?nzozop\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022http:\/\/mdc.sagepub.com\/sites\/all\/modules\/highwire\/highwire\/plugins\/highwire_markup_process\/js\/highwire_tables.js?nzozop\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003C\/body\u003E\u003C\/html\u003E"}