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type=\u0022text\/css\u0022 rel=\u0022stylesheet\u0022 href=\u0022\/\/d282kpwvnogo5m.cloudfront.net\/sites\/default\/files\/cdn\/css\/http\/css_Xg7z6oCTVgud_Q0huYz9x9iiD5H_2YPSJ5z2ZViSWdY.css\u0022 media=\u0022all\u0022 \/\u003E\n\u003Clink rel=\u0027stylesheet\u0027 type=\u0027text\/css\u0027 href=\u0027\/sites\/all\/modules\/contrib\/panels\/plugins\/layouts\/onecol\/onecol.css\u0027 \/\u003E\u003C\/head\u003E\u003Cbody\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panels-ajax-tab-panel panels-ajax-tab-panel-sageoa-tab-art\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-display panel-1col clearfix\u0022 \u003E\n  \u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-panel panel-col\u0022\u003E\n    \u003Cdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022panel-pane pane-highwire-markup\u0022 \u003E\n  \n      \n  \n  \u003Cdiv class=\u0022pane-content\u0022\u003E\n    \u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 id=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022article fulltext-view \u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022section abstract\u0022 id=\u0022abstract-1\u0022\u003E\u003Ch2\u003ESummary\u003C\/h2\u003E\n            \u003Cp id=\u0022p-1\u0022\u003EInflammation that develops in obese persons is thought to play an important role in the development of type 2 diabetes. Epidemiological and clinical data have shown that low levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) consumption is related to cardiovascular disease, and that a higher ratio of omega-6 PUFA to omega-3 PUFA consumption increases this risk. This article discusses links between omega-3 and obesity and inflammation.\u003C\/p\u003E\n         \u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022kwd-group\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EObesity\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003ECardiometabolic Disorder\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EInflammatory Disease\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022kwd-group clinical-trial\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EEndocrinology\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EDiabetes \u0026amp; Metabolic Syndrome\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EObesity\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003ECardiometabolic Disorder\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022kwd\u0022\u003EInflammatory Disease\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-2\u0022\u003EInflammation that develops in obese persons is thought to play an important role in the development of type 2 diabetes. Epidemiological and clinical data have shown that low levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) consumption is related to cardiovascular disease, and that a higher ratio of omega-6 PUFA to omega-3 PUFA consumption increases this risk. Andr\u00e9 Marette, PhD, Universit\u00e9 Laval, Qu\u00e9bec City, Qu\u00e9bec, Canada, reviewed research from his group that explored whether omega-3 is a link between obesity and inflammation.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-3\u0022\u003EA mouse model (Fat-1) was developed in which inflammatory markers were significantly reduced, resulting in improvements in fasting insulin and insulin resistance (IR), and partial improvement in glucose tolerance [Kang JX et al. \u003Cem\u003ENature\u003C\/em\u003E 2004]. In addition, there was greater production of PD1, a molecule that decreases levels of inflammation in muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, and an improvement in IR when Fat-1 mice were fed a diet high in omega-3. This increase in PD1, 1 of several anti-inflammatory mediators, is thought to be an important mechanism by which omega-3 exerts its anti-inflammatory effects. Experiments using typical transcriptomic strategies in Fat-1 mice revealed changes in the regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis pathways, and prostaglandin synthesis and regulation, when omega-6 was increased and omega-3 was decreased in adipose tissue.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-4\u0022\u003EThe lack of weight gain, despite adipogenesis, led to experiments that confirmed peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-\u03b3) was upregulated in adipose tissue in Fat-1 mice. PPAR-\u03b3 is known to contribute to regulation of adipogenesis. Remodeling of adipose tissue was also found in the Fat-1 mice. These mice had no increase in the overall amount of fat; however, they did have an increase in the number of adipocytes but these adipocytes were small. Because an increase in adipocyte size attracts macrophages and other immune cells in adipose tissue, this finding is considered to be important, said Prof. Marette.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-5\u0022\u003EChanges in the endocannabinoid signaling pathway were found in the Fat-1 mice with increased levels of omega-3 [Ge Q et al. \u003Cem\u003EInt J Obes\u003C\/em\u003E (London) 2013]. This pathway comprises neuromodulatory lipids and receptors involved in appetite, among other processes. The cannabinoid CMR1 and CMR2 receptors were overexpressed, but interestingly the catabolic enzyme FAAH known to metabolize lipid molecules activating cannabinoid receptors, was reduced in adipose tissue. Increasing concentration of omega-3 in adipose tissue is thought to compete with omega-6 fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid, which are precursors of cannabinoid receptors, thus adipose tissue tries to increase the number of receptors and downregulates catabolic enzymes.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-6\u0022\u003EThis reduction in endocannabinoid tone would explain improvements in inflammation and metabolic profiles in obese persons, perhaps through adiponectin production, he said. Further, their studies in Fat-1 mice have provided some understanding of the mechanisms through which omega-3 fatty acids control inflammation in the metabolic syndrome. Omega-3 fatty acids can activate resolution mediators to block inflammation, reduce endocannabinoid tone by competing with omega-6 fatty acids, and increase PPAR-\u03b3. Together, these impact adipogenesis, insulin signaling, cholesterol biosynthesis, prostaglandin synthesis and regulation, and small ligand G-protein coupled receptors.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022copyright-statement\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn\u0022 id=\u0022copyright-statement-1\u0022\u003E\u00a9 2013 MD Conference Express\u00ae\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan id=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/mdc.sagepub.com\/content\/13\/16\/8.abstract\u0022 class=\u0022hw-link hw-link-article-abstract\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView Summary\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n  \n  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n  \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022http:\/\/mdc.sagepub.com\/sites\/all\/modules\/highwire\/highwire\/plugins\/highwire_markup_process\/js\/highwire_openurl.js?nznm5e\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003C\/body\u003E\u003C\/html\u003E"}